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Economic Evaluation of Health Programmes ·        Economic evaluation in healthcare helps policymakers, administrators, and stakeholders assess the efficiency and effectiveness of health programs. ·        Various methods and techniques are used to compare costs and outcomes of different health interventions. 1. Cost-Minimization Analysis (CMA) Concept: Used when two or more health interventions achieve the same outcome, and the goal is to determine the least costly option. It assumes equal effectiveness between interventions and focuses solely on cost comparison. Example: Generic vs. Branded Drugs : If a hospital is considering whether to procure a generic version of a drug instead of a branded version (both having the same therapeutic effect), a cost-minimization analysis would help in choosing the more cost-effective option. 2. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) ...

ICMR IN MEDICAL RESEARCH ·        The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has established comprehensive guidelines addressing medical research involving death, dying, and incurably ill patients. ·        These guidelines emphasize ethical considerations, patient autonomy, and the importance of palliative care. 1. Definitions Related to End-of-Life Care: ICMR provides clear definitions to standardize understanding and practices concerning end-of-life care: Terminal Illness: An irreversible or incurable condition expected to result in death in the foreseeable future. Actively Dying: The period, typically hours or days, preceding imminent death during which physiological functions decline. Life-Sustaining Treatment: Medical interventions that artificially support or replace essential bodily functions. Do Not Attempt Resuscitation (DNAR): A directive not to initiate...

EUTHANASIA ·        Euthanasia, also known as "mercy killing," is the deliberate act of ending a person's life to relieve them of suffering, particularly in cases of terminal illness or severe pain. ·        The ethical framework surrounding euthanasia is complex and involves multiple perspectives, including medical ethics, legal considerations, religious beliefs, and human rights. 1. Types of Euthanasia Euthanasia can be categorized into different types based on the mode of action and consent: Voluntary Euthanasia : When a competent patient willingly requests euthanasia. Involuntary Euthanasia : When euthanasia is performed without the patient’s consent (considered unethical and equated with murder). Non-Voluntary Euthanasia : When the patient is unable to provide consent (e.g., in a coma), and the decision is made by family members or medical professionals. Active ...

ECONOMIC TOOLS ·        Economics provides a framework for analyzing how individuals, businesses, and governments make choices under conditions of scarcity. ·        The following are the primary tools of economics used to study and interpret economic activities 1. Demand and Supply Analysis Demand ·        Demand refers to the quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various price levels over a certain period. ·        The Law of Demand states that, all else being equal, as the price of a good decreases, the quantity demanded increases, and vice versa. Determinants of Demand Price of the good Income levels Prices of related goods (substitutes and complements) Consumer preferences Future expectations Supply ·        Supply refers to the quantit...

Basic Graphical Techniques in Economics ·        Graphical techniques are essential tools in economics for analyzing relationships between variables, trends, and economic concepts. 1. Line Graphs ·        Used to represent the relationship between two variables over time, such as demand and supply, price and quantity, or GDP growth. Example: Demand and Supply Curve A typical demand and supply curve shows the equilibrium price where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. 📌 2. Bar Charts Used to compare different quantities, such as GDP of different countries, inflation rates, or employment levels. Example: GDP Comparison of Countries A bar chart can show the GDP of different nations for a given year. 📌 3. Pie Charts Used to show proportions, such as budget allocation, sectoral contribution to GDP, or sources of government revenue. Example: ...